Definition Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Definition Argument - Essay Example She has been able to establish much following due to her popular music. Through various platforms such as facebook and tweeter, Taylor Swift interacts actively with her fans in a system that appears to be a family. Her fan community comprises of fans that are characterized by a feeling of camaraderie and empathy with others who share a common interest. In this case, the fan community is interested even in minor details of the celebrity of their fandom and hence spend a significant amount of energy and time involving with their interest in most cases as a part of a social network. Accordingly, the article will explain the six characteristics of a discourse community as described by Professor John Swales. Taylor Swift’s fun base has demonstrated each of the six characteristics and hence can be classified as a discourse community. A fan community demonstrates a commonness of goals and objectives. According the Professor John Swales, â€Å"discourse community is characterized by the commonness of goal and objectives†(Swales 471). Taylor’s fans are engaged in each and every activity that she engages in. He declares that the community has set and agreed upon a set of common objectives that keeps the community aligned together. The fan community shares the experience the Taylor awesome talent in music. The fan are engaged on a fan page, though having minimal numbers of fans gives the platform to those who have joined share more about Taylor. There are updates on Taylor too such as latest events that Taylor is attending or planning to attend, her trends in fashion through a gallery of photos and some of her music that have remained in the global billboard making her one of the youngest musician to top for close to four years consecutively. In terms of a common goal, Taylor’s fans are mostly up coming musicians and other lover of Americans music. They engage each others on various platforms where they share opinions regarding various singles and albums

Children's views, needs, wishes and feelings are at the heart of Essay

Children's views, needs, wishes and feelings are at the heart of national legislation and international agreements and convent - Essay Example From such international law, the Convention on the Rights of the Child has been specifically drawn. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action also provide various legal guidelines on the protection of children’s rights and welfare. For various states, specific provisions are laid out, including the Equal Protection Clause in the US, the basic rights of children as protected by the 14th Amendment of the US Constitution. More provisions on the protection of these rights are also specifically indicated by various countries. These laws and policies seek to protect children from human rights violations, treating these children as vulnerable members of society. This paper is based on the premise that children’s views, needs, wishes and feelings are at the heart of national legislation and international agreements and conventions. In relation to current policy, this essay shall critically discuss the implications of such premise for early years’ practice among chil dren. First, an initial overview of childhood needs, views, and feelings in relation to national laws and conventions will be presented. Secondly, a discussion on children’s human rights as guaranteed by the UN and other legislative bodies shall also be presented. Thirdly, this essay will also provide the considerations made for children’s feelings and needs in relation to the specific laws and conventions. Fourth, the No Child Left behind Policy of the US will also be discussed in order to detect current trends in children’s rights policies. Fifth, a relationship between the NCLB and the international conventions will be considered. Sixth, the impact of these laws on the improvement of children’s welfare shall be presented. Finally, this essay shall end with a summary and a conclusion of the different points discussed and detailed. Body Overview of childhood needs and feelings Children’s feelings and needs have been brought sharply into internatio nal focus and attention during the First World War when millions of children experienced significant hardships as a result of international human conflicts (Fortin, 2003). In effect, the sufferings of these children served as the foundation for children’s rights. Eglantyne Jebb had a crucial role in the establishment of the 1924 Declaration of the Rights of the Child (Glendon, 2002). These rights were primarily based on her Christian faith (Glendon, 2002). The foundations of children’s rights then were on the protection and nurturing of the child, securing their moral privileges including their need for love and understanding (Fortin, 2003). Various rights are granted to humans, especially as soon as they reach the age of majority. One of the most important rights granted to these humans include the right to vote; however, children or minors below the age of 18 are not granted this right. In general, children do not seem to have control of the things which happen to th em or the matters which concern them (Fortin, 2003). This is very much apparent in daily situations and activities including school, religion, and upbringing. School subjects are compulsory for them to attend and study, mostly based on their location; moreover, for most children until the age of 14, their religion must be that which is inherited from their parents (Fortin, 2003). Parents decide,

Traditional patriarchal society Essay Example for Free

Traditional patriarchal society Essay Discuss the validity of Rachel Claytons view that Much Ado About Nothing has laid bare the faults and deficiencies of a traditional patriarchal society. In Rachel Claytons essay Who is Hero? she suggests Shakespeare has laid bare the faults and deficiencies of traditional patriarchal society. She suggests that a feminist would find Heros acceptance of Claudio after he disgraced her frustrating. But she suggests when looking at Heros actions again considering the society at the time that her actions are more understandable. Elizabethan society was patriarchal and religious. Women were possessions, owned by fathers or husbands. They had to be compliant; a disobedient wife or child made a man appear incompetent. Whereas men were allowed to behave promiscuously before they were married and even during, women were not. If they were found guilty of this they would never be able to marry and their reputation would be shattered. The savage bull may, but if ever the sensible Benedick bear it, pluck off the horns and set them in my forehead, and let me be vilely painted, and in such great letters as they write Here is a good horse to hire let them signify under my sign Here you may see Benedick, the married man'. When a man could not control his wife they were known as cuckolds by other men, which traditionally had horns on their heads. When Benedick uses this imagery, he is suggesting any woman he marries is likely to cheat on him. This shows that men are insecure about themselves; they assume women would be unfaithful because they never get to know them before they are married. Benedick is paranoid about this, and so he uses his scorn of marriage and women as a defence mechanism to protect himself. It is clear that Shakespeare criticises the existing customs and advocates that a courtship in which couples communicate would be a far more preferable way, and which would prevent the mistakes of Claudio. 1 Beatrice also shows this, as when the slander of Hero has taken place, Beatrice asks Benedick to kill Claudio for her. When he refuses, Beatrice gives her view of men, Claudio in particular. She says that if she were a man she would eat his heart in the market place. She is showing that men are weak and cowardly, whereas women, who are portrayed as the weaker sex, are much stronger and braver than men, but she is also showing a stereotypical view of men, showing a lack of understanding because lovers did not get to know each other. If a woman did not get married, it was believed she would go to hell, because marriage was a sacrament and supposedly brought you closer to God. In this way the church is also an aspect of patriarchal society, used to control women and make them do what men desire of them. In fact, the Church was one of the most influential figures of authority, which is shown later, when friar defends Hero. Rachel Clayton says, In consideration of seventeenth-century marriage, romance and emotional capability were not high on the list of priorities for well-placed young women; generally only low-born women had the freedom to marry for love. When considering this, Heros actions are more understandable, even though the slanderous allegations made against her were untrue, her reputation may still have been tarnished, damaging her chances of marriage. If she did not marry Claudio, she may never be able to marry, and so she marries him for her own sake as much as his. A modern audience would find Heros lack of choice frustrating, but to the contemporary audience this would be the norm in society. In a recent interpretation, Hero rejects Claudio, which is a much more satisfying ending to a modern audience. However, these values did not apply to the lower classes, as although Hero is slandered when it is believed she has been unfaithful and is not virtuous, when it is discovered it is in fact Margaret who was with Borachio, she is not punished and her reputation is not tarnished, showing that society treated women differently according to class. Can the world buy such a jewel? Yea, and a case to put it into. Although Claudio refers to Hero as a jewel, he is also referring to buying her, she is a possession to be bought and sold. The metaphor jewel implies this, as although it is a precious beautiful object, it can be owned by an individual and a price put on it. In the same scene, Claudio asks Hath Leonato any son? so implying he has purely selfish reasons for wanting to marry Hero. This also suggests his earlier romantic speech is merely a pretence, and his true motivation for the match is money and status. Hero is the possession of her father, and this is shown when Beatrice, Antonio, Leonato and Hero are discussing the fact they think Don Pedro is going to propose to Hero. Leonato tells Hero if he does You know your answer. The use of the imperative shows Hero does not have a choice. The Watch, although portrayed as foolish, undermine the upper class society as they work out who is to blame for the slander of Hero, whereas the upper class characters believe the lies. The upper class characters are perceived as more intelligent, but the watch find out the truth because they overhear Borachio bragging Thou shouldst rather ask if it were possible any villainy should be so rich. For when rich villains have need of poor ones, poor ones may make what price they will. He believes that chiefly by my (Borachios) villainy he has bettered members of the upper class society. He is unaware that he is about to be found out by a lower class than him. A Marxist reading would say that many characters, especially the women, are controlled by hierarchical society. This is also shown in Don Pedro, who believes his high status in society gives him the right to mock other characters, especially women. This is shown when plotting the match between Benedick and Beatrice Don Pedro tells Hero I will teach you, assuming Hero would not be able to trick her own friend. This also shows how men in society viewed the women as inferior and insignificant, and he is patronising her. The word patronising and patriarchal both stem from the Greek word pater, meaning father. The theme of noting, overhearing, appears throughout the play, as many of the deceptions are carried out due to people misunderstanding overheard conversations. The title Much Ado About Nothing, is multi-layered, as it could be interpreted as a commotion over nothing, but in the time of Shakespeare it could be read as noting, a commotion over noting. Whereas the higher society misinterpret the conversations they overhear, the lower class make no mistake and it is due to their noting and persistence the deceit was uncovered, which also portrays the faults in the patriarchal society. A third interpretation of the title also looks at the word nothing, which can also be read as no-thing, which was a slang term for female genitalia. This interpretation looks at how the Ado concerns mans fight to control female virginity. When Hero is around the women in the play, she wittily converses about the plot to trick Beatrice, saying Why you speak truth, I never yet say a man, how wise, how noble, young, how rarely featured, but she would spell him backward showing her playful nature and her ability to bond with other women and leave behind the formality. This shows that humanised by the worries and wit she discloses to her friends, Hero embodies the enormous pressure upon women to conform to the male ideal (York Notes); it seems her duty is to demonstrate responsibility and restraint, but her silent nature around men is not who Hero really is, but whom she pretends to be in order to gain a husband. This shows that the male members of society suppressed women, and that this submissive silent quality was attractive to men. Heros name is also interesting. Many have suggested that it can also be read as her-o, o being a metaphor for a woman and her virginity. This seems to fit with the plot of the play, as the slander is because Claudio believes Hero is not innocent, she knows the heat of a luxurious bed. He also says Hero itself can blot out Heros virtue. If this is read as Her-o itself can blot out Heros virtue Claudio is saying her virginity will show she is not faithful and honourable, as he believes she has lost it. However, it is also intended to propose a connection between Hero and the so-called heroes of the play. The men of the play have just returned from fighting in the war, and therefore are war heroes. However the craven behaviour shown by the men, Claudios slander of Hero before even checking to determine its truth, and Benedicks reluctance to challenge Claudio for the crimes he has committed, make the audience question who the real hero of the play is, whether it really is Hero, who spends her entire life submitting to the behaviours she believes men desire, and even when she is slandered still forgives and marries Claudio. Hero has no choice in this, therefore Shakespeare has laid bare the faults and deficiencies of a patriarchal society. The slander of Hero is a cowardly, insecure act. When Claudio says Are our eyes our own? , he is showing his own insecurities, he does not know Hero well enough to marry her, and if he did he might not be so insecure and might know she would not be unfaithful to him. Jackie Shead says Shakespeare intends irony, then, when Claudio asks at the wedding party Are our eyes our own? as if the reply, like Heros guilt, is self-evident. She also says Claudio is constantly borrowing the eyes of others; Hero has been the perfect woman all her life, wealthy, beautiful, respected and most of all obedient. She deliberately becomes the silent women to conform to the male ideal and to slander her because of the words of a villain is a cowardly act. This shows that although society looked upon the courtship of Hero and Claudio to be the correct way of finding a partner, they did not know each other well enough, suggesting that the socially acceptable thing to do is not always the best way, therefore undermining the society of the time. In a recent performance at the National Theatre in London, the only women in the scene of Heros slander are Hero and Beatrice, to illustrate how dominated the society was by men. In my opinion, Shakespeare was ahead of his time when he wrote Much Ado About Nothing. He seemed to be able to see through the common beliefs that members of the upper class society were more intelligent and superior to members of the lower class society, as shown in the perceptive nature of The Watch and the way the upper class characters are fooled so easily, and also the belief that women were of a lower status to men and were possessions of men. The comedy in the play is satire, used to highlight the faults in the patriarchal society. As a feminist, I agree with Clayton that Heros acceptance of Claudio after he had disgraced her is frustrating. I also agree with Claytons view that Much Ado About Nothing has laid bare the faults and deficiencies of a traditional patriarchal society. Shakespeare uses many techniques to mock the upper class characters; especially the way women were treated. One of his motivations for this may have been the fact that the monarch was female at the time Shakespeare was writing. Queen Elizabeth was Shakespeares greatest patron, and if his plays appealed to her she would go to see them, which would also encourage others to go. However, the very last line of the play is given to Benedick, who has the last word in his merry war with Beatrice, giving him the upper hand and kissing her to stop her mouth, which shows Shakespeare could not break entirely away from the restraints of patriarchal society. Bibliography: Berry, Mary, ed, Much Ado About Nothing, Cambridge, Sch.Shakespeare (1993) Clayton, Rachel, Who is hero? The English Review September 2002 Shead, Jackie, Are Our Eyes Our Own? The English Review September 2004 Stuart, Ross, ed. Much Ado About Nothing York Notes Advanced, York Press London, 2001 http://www. sparknotes. com/shakespeare/muchado http://www. megaessays. com/viewpaper/28333. html 1 How does Shakespeare dramatically present power and authority between men and women in Much Ado About Nothing? http://www. megaessays. com/viewpaper/28333. html

Reliability of Reflotron in Testing of Total Cholesterol

Reliability of Reflotron in Testing of Total Cholesterol Reliability of Reflotron in Testing of total Cholesterol and Urea in Non- centralized Medical Setting Introduction Point-of-care testing (PoCT) has been defined as â€Å"those analytical patient-testing activities provided within the institution, but performed outside the physical facilities of the clinical laboratories (1). There has been a growing interest in point-of-care testing (PoCT) because of its advantages over standard laboratory procedures, it provides timely information to medical teams, facilitating rational, time-critical decisions, and has been demonstrated to improve patient outcomes in critical care settings (2). At least a dozen portable cholesterol and urea testing instruments have been designed for use in community and office settings. These instruments have made mass screenings for these risk factors feasible and thus are now in widespread use for this purpose (3). Dyslipidemia; including both hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia represent significant risk factors for the development of peripheral artery diseases and negative health outcomes (4, 5). High blood cholesterol increases the risk of heart disease, is a major modifiable risk factor, and contributes to the leading cause of death in the USA (6,7). Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is now recognized as a major world-wide health problem (8). A method for the estimation of the urea in blood coming from individual organs and for clinical purposes must be efficient when only small quantities of blood can be obtained (9). Aim of work: In Arar city many non- centralized Medical Setting used Reflotron for medical analysis and diagnosis disease. The purpose of this study was to assess the validity of Reflotron in the testing of total cholesterol and urea for screening and diagnosis in Arar city. Methods: Cross sectional study held in Arar city in the period from 1 November 2013 to 10 November 2013, 30 blood sample was taken and measured by Reflotron apparatus and the results was rechecked by Dimension RXI MAX apparatus to compare between the results between 2 methods. Approximately 20ml of blood was collected from each participant, after fasting for 12h, using standardized venipuncture techniques in the antecubital vein in the bend of the elbow. In order to overcome technician error, two drops of blood (30ÃŽ ¼l) were collected immediately from the previously drawn venous sample by drawing blood into the capillary tube from the opening in the top of the venous tube before centrifuging the venous sample, rather than ‘sticking’ the finger. Statistical analysis was done by SPSS 20 and suitable statistical methods were used, p Results: Table (1): Comparison between Reading of Reflotron and Dimension RXI MAX test: Table 1 shows that the mean of urea was 65.22 ±46.3 by Dimension RXI MAX apparatus while it was 63.73 ±41.1 by Reflotron, as regards Total cholesterol mean by Dimension RXI MAX and Reflotron was 150.04 ±38.9 and 167.7 ±40.3 respectively, the difference between the reading of the two apparatuses was not statistically significant in both Urea and cholesterol. Table (2): Mean Percent of change between Reflotron and Dimension RXI MAX test in urea and cholesterol Table 2 shows that the mean percent of change between Reflotron and Dimension RXI MAX test in urea and cholesterol was -0.4% and 12.5% respectively Discussion The Reflotron has been marketed aggressively for use in community screening programs. The marketing has focused heavily on the instrument’s relatively low cost, ease of operation, and accuracy. This strategy has resulted in the widespread use of this instrument in blood cholesterol screenings. The Reflotron has been studied previously using various settings, sample sizes, and methodologies (10). This study compared the same blood sample using dry chemistry by the portable analyzer Reflotron plus and wet chemistry by Dimension RXI MAX apparatus. The MultiCare systems are pocket-sized reflectance photometers, in which the intensity of the color developed from a chromogen reaction being proportional to the concentration of the cholesterol or urea in the blood. The results of the MultiCare method compared with the reference method demonstrated good agreement between the 2 methods, the difference between the reading of the two apparatuses was not statistically significant in both Urea and cholesterol with a mean difference of 12.5% and –0.4% for cholesterol and urea, respectively. The availability of POCT lipid monitors has increased in recent years, any POCT must be validated for bias and imprecision to ensure that appropriate medical decisions and population screenings are made (11-17). The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) in the United States recommended bias goals of 3% and 5% for cholesterol and triglycerides, respectively. Conclusion: The portable analyzer Reflotron provided clinically relevant underestimations of total cholesterol values comparison with Dimension RXI MAX, whereas, urea values urea values satisfied. Consequently, lipid values obtained using the Reflotron may be useful for screening, but the Reflotron should not be used as a diagnostic tool. Urea values useful for screening and diagnosis kidney diseases . References U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National institutes of Health. Point-of-Care Diagnostic Testing Fact Sheet. Jul 2007. Birkhahn RH, Haines E, Wen W, Reddy L, Briggs WM, Datillo PA (2011). Estimating the clinical impact of bringing a multimarker cardiac panel to the bedside in the ED. Am J Emerg Med, 29(3):304-8. Havas, Stephen; Bishop, Robert; et al Performance of the Reflotron in Massachusetts Model System for blood cholesterol screening program. American journal of public health; Mar 1992;82,3, ProQuist central. Davis, C.L., Harmon, W.E., Himmelfarb, J., Hostetter, T., Powe, N., Smedberg, P., Szczech, L.A. and Aronson, P.S. 2008: World Kidney Day 2008: think globally, speak locally. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 19, 413–16. Sullivan DR. Screening for cardiovascular disease with cholesterol. Int J Clin Chem 2002;315:49–60. State-specific cholesterol screening trends-United States, 1991–1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2000;284: p. 1374–5. Cheng AY, Leiter LA. (2006). Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Curr Opin Cardiol 21(4):400–404. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (2001).Executive summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 285:2486–2497. Volles DF, McKenney JM, Miller WG, Ruffen D, Zhang D. Ana- lytic and clinical performance of two compact cholesterol-testing devices. Pharmacotherapy 1998;18:184–92. Havas S, Bishop R, Koumjian L, Reisman J, Wozenski S.Performance of the Reflotron in Massachusetts’ model system for blood cholesterol measurement. Am J Public Health 1992;82:458–61. Shephard MD, Mazzachi BC, Shephard AK. Comparative perfor- mance of two point-of-care analysers for lipid testing. Clin Lab 2007;53:561–6. Stein JH, Carlsson CM, Papcke-Benson K, Einerson JA, McBride PE, Wiebe DA. Inaccuracy of lipid measurements with the portable Cholestech L.D.X analyzer in patients with hypercho- lesterolemia. Clin Chem 2002;48:284–90. du Plessis M, Ubbink JB, Vermaak WJ. Analytical quality of near- patient blood cholesterol and glucose determinations. Clin Chem 2000;46:1085–90. Gottschling HD, Reuter W, Ronquist G, Steinmetz A, Hattemer A. Multicentre evaluation of a non-wipe system for the rapid determination of total cholesterol in capillary blood, Accutrend Cholesterol on Accutrend GC. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1995;33:373–81. Laboratory Standardization Panel of the National Cholesterol Education Program. Current status of blood cholesterol measurement in clinical laboratories in the United States: a report from the Laboratory Standardization Panel of the National Cholesterol Education Program. Clin Chem 1988;34:193–201. Carey M, Markham C, Gaffney P, Boran C, Maher V. Validation of a point of care lipid analyser using a hospital based reference laboratory. Ir J Med Sci 2006;175:30–5. Luley C, Ronquist G, Reuter W, et al. Point-of-care testing of triglycerides: evaluation of the Accutrend triglycerides system. Clin Chem 2000;46:287–91.

The Role of Wiglaf in Beowulf Essay -- Beowulf Wiglaf Essays

The Role of Wiglaf in Beowulf Seemingly minor character Wiglaf plays a central role in the conclusion of Beowulf. A young knight who has never before seen battle, Wiglaf steps forward to help his lord, hero, and cousin Beowulf in a time of peril. With his failure in battle and resulting death, the narrator shows that Beowulf is, after all, a prideful and mortal being; thus begins the transfer of heroic status from the old king to the young knight. The narrator argues that Wiglaf is worthy of his abruptly acquired status even though his intentions may seem questionable. The end of the poem devotes a significant amount of lines to dialogue spoken by Wiglaf, signifying his newly crucial role in his kingdom and in the story. Inevitably, the noble youth progresses to a position of epic heroism, continuing Beowulf’s legacy and fulfilling his figurative role as the â€Å"treasure†¦won,/ bought and paid for by Beowulf’s death† (2843-2844). Beowulf’s strength fails him for the first time when he confronts the dragon. As he loses the futile battle that he pridefully insists on fighting alone, the narrative breaks from Beowulf’s peril and focuses on Wiglaf. With â€Å"wise and fluent words,† (2632) Wiglaf delivers a monologue in the poem rivaled in length and power by Beowulf alone. Clearly, Wiglaf has something profound to add to the story as the narrator spends considerable time quoting his sentiments while Beowulf is trying to slay an angry dragon in the background. Like the knight in The Wanderer, Wiglaf recounts the happy days in the mead hall with longing, and wishes to serve his lord with all his strength. Without Beowulf, the knights would be displaced, lonely, and without purpose. To inspire his comra... ...m â€Å"big and brave† (2837). Wiglaf has truly lived up to the poet’s and to Beowulf’s expectations. Upon Beowulf’s death, he says, â€Å"I give thanks / that I behold this treasure here in front of me, / that I have been allowed to leave my people / so well endowed† (2795-2798). As most of the gold ends up burning on the king’s funeral pyre, it is likely that the treasure Beowulf speaks of is Wiglaf, himself. The young knight has proven his abilities and will certainly serve his people well. The poet explains that â€Å"the treasure had been won, / bought and paid for by Beowulf’s death† (2843-2844). Wiglaf rises to the most significant role in the poem, as he achieves a level of heroism matched only by Beowulf in his younger years. He proves to be the treasure that compensates the king’s death, filling the resulting void in his kingdom and in the narrative.

Americas Involvement in the Soviet Afghan War Essay -- Iran War Ameri

America's Involvement in the Soviet Afghan War The worst case scenario for the United States in the late 70s and early 80s was the threat of the Soviet invasion of Iran and subsequent control of the Saudi Oil fields. The best that could be done to counter a possible Soviet invasion would have been the deployment of parts of the 82nd Airborne Division to the Zagros Mountains of Iran, which would take at least a week with reinforcements arriving much later. This was not acceptable to the Carter Administration, which decided on another course of action - to actively support the anti-Soviet Mujahideen â€Å"freedom - fighters† in Afghanistan and help protect the Middle Eastern oil fields. This American involvement in the Soviet Afghan war has led to the emergence of Al-Qaeda and the September 11th attacks. On December 24th 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. On that day began a war which wreaked incredible havoc and destruction on Afghanistan for 10 long years. The Soviets stormed in with thousands of troops at the request of the troubled Afghan Communist regime. The Russians believed this be a neat surgical military operation. They were wrong.(Boggs) The only resistance to the Soviet invasion were men known as the "mujahideen" known to many as freedom fighters. They are multinational; some even from America, doing everything in their power to repeal the Soviet horde. The Soviet invasion frightened neighboring countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, so they unofficially allied with the United States. The U.S. provided the weaponry, training, etc., Saudi Arabia recruited the fighters (mujahideen) which were sometimes based in Pakistan. They all agreed on the need for armed resistance against the Soviets. The U.S. decided to tap the religious vein of the rebels, creating a z ealous religiously driven guerrilla organization; well armed and trained by CIA officers with the goal of returning Afghanistan to Islamic purity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Mujahideen tactics were mostly composed of ambushes for Soviet convoys. They also implemented hit and run tactics against the Soviets.(Jalali, 20) The main battles were fought for convoys. Soviet forces were dependent on convoys for various reasons. Afghanistan had undeveloped industry making no possibility to manufacture spare parts in Afghanistan. Railways were nonexistent, so everything not airlifted was brought in through ... ...Lester Grau. Afghan Guerrilla Warfare. Fort Leavenworth: Foreign Military Studies   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Office, 2001.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nyrop, Richard, and Donald Seekins. Afghanistan, a country study. Secretary of the Army, 1986. Raman, B. MUCH ADO ABOUT A MISSILE . South Asia Analysis Group. April 10 2005 . Ross, Kelley. Islam. April 26, 2005 . Silverstein , Ken . Stingers, Stingers, Who's Got the Stingers? . Global Security. April 10 2005 . Steinman, Joshua. "America must engage Osama Bin Laden."   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chicago Maroon 06 Jan 2005. 03/04/05   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://maroon.uchicago.edu/viewpoints/articles/2005/01  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  /06/america_must_engage_.php . T-64 Tank. FAS. Ap 27 2005 .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tamarov, Vladislav. Afghanistan: Soviet Vietnam. San Fransisco: Mercury House, 1992. Terrorism: Questions and Answers. Council on Foreign Relations. April 07, 2005   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  . The Beast. Videocassette. Columbia Pictures, 1988. Tuninga, John The Umayyad Caliphate. Bartleby. Ap 23 2005 .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wolpert, Stanley. Roots of Confrontation in South Asia. New   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  York: Oxford University Press, 1982. Wuthnow, Robert . Islam. Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion. Ap 23, 2005 .

American Immigration 1607-1830 Essay

Ever since its founding in 1776, and even before then, the United States has attracted immigrants from around the world. For well over two centuries, people have flocked under this nation’s protective wings as opportunists, sojourners, missionaries, refugees, and even illegal aliens. With the Statue of Liberty greeting Europeans entering Ellis Island, and The Golden Gate Bridge greeting Chinese and other Asians into San Francisco, the U. S. has long since been a refuge of the world, with opportunities abound and freedom for all. Over time, millions around the world have found emigrating to the U. S. as the only alternative to starvation, death, or a life full of hardship and suffering. With thousands from nations spanning the globe, America has become a mosaic of people, culture, and hope. The Regulations and Laws In 1862, the first measure restricting immigration enacted by Congress was a law forbidding American vessels to transport Chinese immigrants to the U. S. 20 years later in 1882, Congress upped the constraint, passing the Chinese Exclusion Act restricting all Chinese immigrants entry into the U.  S. At about the same time, acts passed by Congress in 1875, 1882, and 1892 provided for the examination of immigrants and for the exclusion from the U. S. of convicts, polygamists, prostitutes, person suffering from loathsome or contagious, diseases, and persons liable to become public charges. Also passed were the Aline Contract Labor Laws of 1885, 1887, 1888, and 1891, prohibiting the immigration to the U. S. of persons entering the country to work under contracts made before their arrival. The English Out of all the ethnic groups in the world, most consider the English to have had to most crucial role in paving the way for U. S. immigration. The English were the ones to establish colonies of which the United States of America sprung from. Their offspring formed the largest component of the Republic and the foundations they laid influenced all subsequent newcomers. The first successful permanent English settlement was Jamestown, founded in 1607 by the Virginia Company. Jamestown was founded on May 14, 1607, by a small group led by Captain Christopher Newport, who was hired by the London Company to transport colonists. Many settlers died from famine and disease in the winter of 1609-10. The survivors were encouraged to stay in Jamestown by the arrival of new settlers and supplies the following June. In 1612 tobacco growing was started. The colony prospered and became the capital of Virginia. In 1619 the first representative assembly in America was held here. In the same year, at Jamestown, the first black slaves were introduced into the original 13 colonies. The village was often attacked by Native Americans. In 1622, 350 colonists were killed; 500 in 1644. Colonists rebelling against the rule of Governor William Berkeley burned Jamestown in the seat of government was moved to the Middle Plantation (now Williamsburg) in 1699, and Jamestown was deserted. The National Park Service and the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (which owns 9 hectares/23 acres of the island), have excavated and restored the area. The Jamestown Archaeological Laboratory contains relics unearthed by National Park Service excavations. Jamestown Festival Park, adjacent to the national park, has full-scale replicas of early ships and a re-creation of James Fort (1607). Pavilions depict Native American and English cultures. (Microsoft, 1998) Immigration to New England began with the migration of Pilgrims who established Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts Bay in 1620. In 1629, a large mount of English Puritans with charter and a mission to set up a Puritan commonwealth establish a settlement on the Massachusetts Bay. The following decade from 1630 to 1640 marked the period of time known as the Great Migration. During this time, Massachusetts’s population skyrocketed with the migration of approximately 21,000 immigrants to New England, about a third of them being Britons. However, by 1660, large-scale migration from Britain to New England rapidly decreased and immigration to the New World was officially discouraged. But during 1700’s, Britain began to restrict emigration out of England to the U. S. In 1718, the British Parliament prohibited immigration of skilled workers from the British Isles to migrate to the U. S. and in 1775, an outbreak of revolutionary violence stops immigration from Britain. From that point on, only a trickle of British immigrants came to the USA, compared to the rest of western Europe. The Germans Around the year 1700, many Germans were fleeing their homeland to find an easier life in other European countries, the Western Hemisphere, and Australia due to extremely violent conditions. Unlike most immigrants, German immigrants mostly did not immigrate for political reasons. In fact, the country was repeatedly being attacked by armies of various nationalities. Inhabitants of the southwestern part, especially, were constantly robbed and tortured. Entire villages were often burnt down and their inhabitants killed. During the flood of emigrants from Germany, its rulers tried to stop the flow, but to little effect. In fact, the flow increased, and in 1709 about 15,000 Germans left for Britain, and 3,000 crossed the Atlantic to New York. In 1745, there were an estimated 45,000 Germans living in Pennsylvania alone. After the year 1800, Germans still poured into the US, but for different reasons than the earlier generations. Modernization and population growth forced many Germans from their respective family businesses. Also, modernization made immigrating more convenient and faster with inventions such as the steam boat and steam train. Many Germans took long, complicated, but cheap routes through Great Britain by way of train and boat to get to the United States. In the United States, most Germans lived on the countryside. Only about two fifths lived in cities larger than 25,000 people. In 1870, German-born farmers made up one third of the agricultural industry in the region. This does not include most Pennsylvanian Germans who were born native to the US. German farmers didn’t just stay in the east. Large numbers of German farmers could be found in the Midwest and in Texas. Some even went as far west as Anaheim, California. West coast German farmers, though, didn’t live up to the east coast stereotype of a German farmer. Most of the west coast farmers would sacrifice fertile land for a closer location to other Germans. Also, in cities, Germans would cluster together to form communities not unlike the Chinese Chinatowns. These replications of Germany would house prominent German businesses such as the lager beer industry. German entrepreneurs such as bakers, butchers, cabinetmakers, cigar makers, distillers, machinists, and tailors also could be found in abundance in these â€Å"Miniature-Germany† towns. German women, however, were less likely than the average American woman to enter the labor force. Very few German women could be found holding jobs in a factory, or as a clerk. Instead, they sought after work as bakers, domestic workers, hotel keepers, janitors, laundry workers, nurses, peddlers, saloon keepers, and tailors. Not all Germans got along in large groups, though. During much of the nineteenth century, divisions among Germans seemed more significant those between German Americans and other groups. These divisions were based on geography, on ideology, and on religion. The first two were most apparent before 1871, when the push for German unification tended to unite most but certainly not all German Americans in feelings of pride in their fatherland and its achievements. Initially, German immigrants tended to identify themselves as Bavarians, Wurttembergers, Saxons, and so on, although intellectuals and those who politicized yearned for some kind of German unification. Most of these were liberals of one kind or another, who dreamed of a more-or-less democratic Germany. Even so, when unification did come to Bismarckian, autocratic terms after the wars of unification, all but the most ideologically committed German Americans rejoiced: Liberals and conservatives, as well as the more numerically important apolitical, were united in a feeling of pride. (Roger Daniels, 1990) Religious differences were more enduring. Most German immigrants were Protestants, with Lutheranism by far the most denomination; perhaps a third of German immigrants were Catholics, and around 250,000 were Jewish. With the Lutheran community in the United States there was considerable friction. Nineteenth-century German Lutheran immigrants found that the existing German Lutheran churches in the US had developed into what, to them, were unwelcome tendencies. Most had been Americanized enough so that English was used for all or part of their services. Even worse, doctrine had been liberalized. The older churches and their offshoots, established by immigrants who had come before the Revolution, had come closer to Reformed and even Anglican churches and in many instances had adopted preaching styles similar to that of the Methodists. These trends were, not surprisingly, more pronounced in the cities than in the country. In New York and Philadelphia, for example, Lutheran bodies had adopted new constitutions in which all reference to the Augsburg Confession had disappeared. The result was, eventually, schism. By 1847, under the leadership of a recent immigrant pastor, C. F. W. Walther, whose enemies called him â€Å"the Lutheran pope of the West,† the newer Lutheran arrivals who wished to maintain the old-style doctrine had organized the Missouri Synod. Over the years it has remained the bulwark of the more conservative American Lutherans, regardless of where they live. The Italians During the mass emigration from Italy during the century between 1876 to 1976, the U. S. was the largest single recipient of Italian immigrants in the world. However, their impact was not as great as countries like Argentina and Brazil. That was due to the fact that hundreds of thousands of immigrants from nations all over the world were migrating to the U. S. at the same time and American born natives already made up the majority ethnic group. The Italians did play a major role though, socially with individuals rising to national stature in many different fields. In 1850, less than 4,000 Italians were reportedly in the U. S. However in 1880, merely four years after the influx of Italian immigrants migrated, the population skyrocketed to 44,000, and by 1900, 484,027. From 1880 to 1900, southern Italian immigrants became the predominant Italian immigrant and stayed that way throughout the mass migration. Despite the increase numbers, the Italians were not the largest foreign-origin group in American cities. Outnumbered by groups migrating for decades before them. Italians only made-up 1. 5% of the U. S. population at its peak. In the U. S. where the abundance of cheap land could no longer be found, the mostly agricultural Italians in Italy, became mostly urban. Starting from the bottom of the occupational ladder working up, they worked jobs such as shoe shinning, ragpicking, sewer cleaning, and whatever hard, dirty, dangerous jobs others didn’t want. Even children worked at an early age, as in Italy, even at the expense of their educations. The Italians were known for rarely accepting charity or resorting to prostitution for money, another reflection of patterns in Italy. As in many other places in the world, Italians in America clustered into groups related to their place of origin. For example, the Neapolitans and Sicilians settled in different parts of New York, and even people from different parts of Sicily settled on different streets. However, what seldom occurred in U. S. were Italians enclaves, or all-Italians neighborhoods. The Italians would disperse themselves in other immigrant groups, such as, the Irish, the Jews, the Germans, and the Poles, while remaining in their clusters. Also, immigrants usually settled in different regions of U. S. based in where they came from in Italy. The Sicilians resided in New Orleans, the Neapolitans and Calabrians in Minnesota, and mostly northern Italians in California. However most of the Italians were concentrated in the mid Atlantic states in 1910 with 472,000 in New York and nearly 200,000 in Pennsylvania at the time. The living conditions for the Italians tended to be over crowded and filthy all over the U. S.. Italian laborers also tended to skimp on food in a desperate attempt to save money. However, after time and new generations of Italians, the dirtiness of their homes disappeared along with the complaint of weak Italians from lack of nutrition. The Italians were noted for their diligence and sobriety as workmen. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, Italians often became fishermen, shoemakers, waiters, fruit sellers, and tradesmen. Most were unskilled laborers though, working in mines and construction jobs. Over the years, the Italians rose up the economic scale but acquiring job skills in blue-collar job rather than by becoming educated and entering that profession. The Irish The Irish were unfortunately divided during much of the nineteenth century and was therefore helpless in the face of its grave problems. The Act of Union of 1803 incorporated the island into British polity, but was useless in easing the difficult situation of the people.. With an overly large population as the result of the Napoleanic Wars, the Irish soon became impoverished. And with the religious prejudice of Protestant Masters to the Catholic Irish, plus political subordination, many had no alternative by to emigrate to the United States for relief. Between 1820 and 1860, the Irish were never less than a third of all immigrants. The British Passenger Acts attempted to deflect the immigration from the British Isles to Canada instead of the U.  S. , making the fare a cheap 15 shilling compared to the 4 or 5 pound fare to New York. Many Irish soon found it convenient to take the affordable trip to Canada, where they could buy cheap fares to the U. S. , or cheaper yet, they could walk across the border. By 1840, the Irish constituted nearly half of all entering immigrants, and New England found it self heavily foreign born. By 1950, the Irish consisted of one fifth of all foreign born in the originally homogenous region. In 1845, the great potato rot touched off a mass migration. The disaster eliminated the sole ubsistence of millions of peasants, thrusting them over the edge of starvation. For five weary years, the crops remained undependable, and famine swept through the land. Untold thousands perished, and the survivors, destitute of hope, wished only to get away (Handlin, 1972). The only mode of escape was emigration. Starving families that could not pay landlords faced no alternative but to leave the country in hopes of a better future. And thus the steadily scaling number of Irish who entered the U. S. between 1820 and 1830 skyrocketed in the 1840s, nearly 2 million came in that decade. The flow persisted increasingly for another five years, as the first immigrants began to earn the means of sending for relatives and friends. The decade after 1855 showed a subside in the movement, but smaller numbers continued to arrive after the Civil War. Altogether, almost 3. 5 million Irishmen entered the U. S. between 1820 and 1880. Emigrating to the U. S. wasn’t the magical solution for most of the immigrants. Peasants arrived without resources, or capital to start farms or businesses. Few of them ever accumulated the resources to make any meaningful choice about their way of life. Fortunately for them, the expansion of the American economy created heavy demands for muscle grunt. The great canals, which were the first links in the national transportation system were still being dug in the 1820s and 1830s, and in the time between 1830 and 1880, thousands of miles of rail were being laid. With no bulldozers existing at the time, the pick and the shovel were the only earth-moving equipment at the time. And the Irish laborers were the mainstay of the construction gangs that did this grueling work. In towns along the sites of work, groups of Irish formed their small communities to live in. By the middle of the nineteenth century, as American cities were undergoing rapid growth and beginning to develop an infrastructure and creating the governmental machinery and personnel necessary to run it, the Irish and their children got their first foothold- on the ground floor. Irish policemen and firemen are not just stereotypes: Irish all but monopolized those jobs when they were being created in the post-Civil War years, and even today Irish names are clearly over-represented in those occupations (Daniels, 1990). Irish workmen not only began laying the horsecar and streetcar tracks, but were some of the first drivers and conductors. The first generations worked largely at unskilled and semiskilled occupations, but their children found themselves working at increasingly skilled trades. By 1900, when Irish American mend made up about a thirteenth of the male labor force, they were almost a third of the plumbers, steamfitters, and boilermakers. Industry working Irish soon found themselves lifted up into boss and straw-boss positions as common laborers more and more arrived from southern and eastern Europe- Italians, Slavs, and Hungarians. In years after 1860, Irish Immigration persisted. More than 2. 6 million Irish came in the decades after 1860. However, larger numbers of immigrants from elsewhere masked the inflow of Irish people. Those Irish who did continue to flow into the U. S. tended to settle in the already existing Irish communities, where Catholic Churches had been built, and cultural traditions were carried out. However materialistically poor they were, the Irish were rich in cultural resources, developing institutions that helped them face hardship without despair. Cultural events such as St.  Patrick’s Day were regarded by most Americans as evidence of the separateness of these immigrants, but helped hold the Irish culture together. Their desire for self-expression showed that the Irish understood their group identity. Poor as they were, they drew strength from a culture that explained their situation in the world and provided spiritual resources to face if not to solve the problem. Aside from the church, the most important media of that culture were the press and the stage. All Irish newspapers had either a nationalistic or a religious base, some published as church organs, other drawing support from patriotic societies. Their newspapers interpreted news, accommodated information, and printed popular poems and stories. The stage was even more appealing because it did not demand literacy, presenting to attentive audiences dramas as real as life but not as painful. By the late 1800s, the painful initial Irish transplantation into American society had ended. Second and third generation born and educated in the U. S. replaced the immigrants, but their heritage still stemmed from the peasants’ flight from Ireland and of the hardships of striking new roots in the New World.